Io简介

大多数的Io社区都致力于将Io作为带有微型虚拟机和丰富并发特性的可嵌入语言来推广。
Io的核心优势是拥有大量可定制的语法和函数,以及强有力的并发模型。
在Io中,万事万物皆为消息,且每条消息都灰返回另一接受消息的对象。Io这门语言没有关键字,有的只是少量在行为上接近于关键字的字符。

对象、原型和继承

Io是一门原型语言,所有的对象都有原型,对象还带有槽(slot,相当于类的域和方法??)。
槽的相关操作

  1. :=当槽不存在,Io会创建一个槽,然后赋值
  2. =给槽赋值,如果槽不存在,抛出异常
  3. ::=新建槽
  4. type 任何对象都有type这个槽,返回对象的原型
  5. slotNames返回对象的槽名列表
  6. getSlot(name)获取槽的内容,如果槽不存在会获取父对象的槽

Io的类型是一个非常好的机制。从惯用的角度说,以大写开开头的对象时类型,因此Io会对它设置type槽。而类型的复制品若以小写开头则会调用它父对象的type槽。

方法

方法是槽的一种?
方法也是对象,和其它类型的对象一样,你可以获取它的类型。

Io>method() type  
==>Block  

Lobby是主命名空间(相当于浏览器中javascript的window?),包含所有已命名的对象。

Io> Lobby
  Protos           = Object_0x1dac868
  _                = Object_0x1dac8c8
  exit             = method(...)
  forward          = method(...)
  set_             = method(...)
  1. 所有事物都是对象;
  2. 所有与对象的交互都是消息
  3. 你要做的不是实例化类,而是复制那些叫做原型的对象
  4. 对象会记住它的原型
  5. 对象有槽
  6. 槽包含对象(包括方法对象)
  7. 消息返回槽中的值,或调用槽中的方法
  8. 如果对象无法响应某消息,它则会把消息发送给自己的原型

单例

true、false和nil都是单例(singleton),对它们进行复制,返回的只是单例对象的值。构建单例只需重定义clone方法,让它返回单例对象自身即可。

第一天自习

  1. 对1+1求值,然后对1+“one"求值。Io是强类型还是弱类型?用代码证实你的答案。

     Io> 1+1
     ==> 2
     Io> 1+"one"
    	
     Exception: argument 0 to method '+' must be a Number, not a 'Sequence'
     ---------
     message '+' in 'Command Line' on line 1
    	
     Io> "1"+"one"
    	
     Exception: Io Assertion 'operation not valid on non-number encodings'
     ---------
     message '+' in 'Command Line' on line 1
    	
     Io> "1" .. "one"
     ==> 1one
     Io> 1 .. "one"
     ==> 1one
    
  2. 0是true还是false?空字符串是true还是false?nil是true还是false?用代码证实你的答案。

    Io> if( 0 , true println,false println)
    true
    ==> true
    Io> if( "" , true println,false println)
    true
    ==> true
    Io> if( nil , true println,false println)
    false
    ==> false
    
  3. 如何知道某个原型具有哪些槽?

     Io> Sequence slotNames foreach(println)
     log
     linePrint
     beforeSeq
     pathComponent
     urlDecoded
     removeSeq
     bitwiseAnd
     removeOddIndexes
     uppercase
     findSeq
     replaceSeq
     cPrint
     logicalOr
     ...
    
  4. =、:=、::=之间有什么区别?你会在什么时候使用它们?

     Io> OperatorTable
     ==> OperatorTable_0x951180:
     Operators
       0   ? @ @@
       ...
    	
     Assign Operators
       ::= newSlot
       :=  setSlot
       =   updateSlot
    

    实际测试没有发现::=与:=的区别。

  5. 从文件中运行Io程序。

     D:\IoCodes>cat sum.io
     sum := 0
     for(i,1,100,
             sum = sum + i
     )
     sum println
    	
     D:\IoCodes>io sum.io
     5050
    

运算符

Io> OperatorTable addOperator("xor",11)
==> OperatorTable_0x1d61180:
Operators
  ...
  10  && and
  11  or xor ||
  12  ..
  13  %= &= *= += -= /= <<= >>= ^= |=
  14  return

Assign Operators
  ::= newSlot
  :=  setSlot
  =   updateSlot

To add a new operator: OperatorTable addOperator("+", 4) and implement the + message.
To add a new assign operator: OperatorTable addAssignOperator("=", "updateSlot") and implement the updateSlot 	message.

Io> true xor := method(bool,if(bool,false,true))
==> method(bool,
    if(bool, false, true)
)
Io> false xor := method(bool,if(bool,true,false))
==> method(bool,
    if(bool, true, false)
)
Io> true xor false
==> true

消息

在Io中,几乎一切都是消息。一个消息由三部分组成:发送者(sender)、目标(target)、参数(arguments)。你可以用call方法访问任何消息的元信息。

//msg.io
MsgReceiver := Object clone
MsgReceiver receive := method(
    "message name is : " print
    call message name println

    "sender is :" println
    call sender  println

    "target is :" println
    call target  println

    "arguments is :" println
    call message arguments  println

    "arguments[0] is : " print
    call message argAt(0)  println
    "arguments[0] is : " print
    call argAt(0)  type println
    "arguments[0] is : " print
    call evalArgAt(0)  type println
)

MsgSender := Object clone
MsgSender send := method(
    "message name is : " print
    call message name println

    "sender is :" println
    call sender  println

    "target is :" println
    call target  println
    receiver := MsgReceiver clone
    receiver receive("hollo world!")
)

sender := MsgSender clone
sender send

//result:
message name is : send
sender is :
 Object_0x44c890:
  Lobby            = Object_0x44c890
  MsgReceiver      = MsgReceiver_0x2171178
  MsgSender        = MsgSender_0x2171238
  Protos           = Object_0x44c830
  _                = nil
  exit             = method(...)
  forward          = method(...)
  sender           = MsgSender_0x21712c8
  set_             = method(...)

target is :
 MsgSender_0x21712c8:

message name is : receive
sender is :
 MsgSender_0x21712c8:

target is :
 MsgReceiver_0x217c368:

arguments is :
list("hollo world!")
arguments[0] is : "hollo world!"
arguments[0] is : Message
arguments[0] is : Sequence
[Finished in 0.2s]

可以看到,send方法的发送者是全局对象Lobby。 evalArgAt和argAt是两者间的区别:

evalArgAt(argNumber)
Evaluates the specified argument of the Call’s message in the context of it’s sender.

argAt(argNumber)
Returns the message’s argNumber arg. Shorthand for same as call message argAt(argNumber).

大多数语言都将参数作为栈上的值传递,但是Io不是这样。Io传递的是消息本身和上下文,在由接受者对消息求值。实际上你可以用消息实现控制结构。

反射

在Io中,处理反射分为两个部分。在邮局那个例子中,是消息反射。对象反射是处理对象和对象的槽。

Object ancestors := method(
    prototype := self proto
    if(prototype !=Object,
    writeln("Slots of ",prototype type,"\n---------------------")
    prototype slotNames foreach(slotName, writeln(slotName))
    writeln
    prototype ancestors))

Animal := Object clone
Animal speak := method(
    "ambigulous animal noise" println
)

Duck := Animal clone
Duck speak := method(
    "quack" println
)

Duck walk := method(
    "waddle" println
)

disco := Duck clone
disco ancestors

disco walk

disco speak

***************output:*******************
Slots of Duck
---------------------
walk
speak
type

Slots of Animal
---------------------
speak
type

waddle
quack

第二天自习

  1. 计算斐波那契数列的递归和循环两种方法:

    fib := method(n,
        if(n ==1 or n == 2) then(
            return 1
        ) else (
            return (fib(n-1) + fib(n-2))
        )
    )
    	
    fib2 := method(n,
        if(n == 1) then (
            return 1
        ) else (
            prv1 := 1
            prv2 := 0
            cur := 0
            for(i,2,n,
                cur = prv1 + prv2
                prv2 = prv1
                prv1 = cur
            )
            return cur
        )
    )
    
  2. 在分母为0的情况下如何让运算符/返回0?

    Number setSlot("coreDivision", Number getSlot("/"))
    
    Number / = method(n,
        if(n==0) then(
            return 0
        )else(
            return (self coreDivision(n))
        )
    )
    
    (4/0) println
    	
    (8/4) println
    	
    (16/8) println
    	
    (16 / -8) println
    
  3. 写一个程序,把二维数组的所有数相加
    Io中没有Array这个原型,所以用List代替数组

    sum := method(arr,
        if(arr type != "List") then(
            return 0
        )
        sum := 0
        arr foreach(e,
            if(e type != "List") then(
                continue
            )
            if(e size < 2) then(
                continue
            )
            sum = sum + e at(0)
            sum = sum + e at(1)
        )
        return sum
    )
    	
    sum(list(list(3,4),list(5))) println
    sum(list(7,8)) println
    
    ************output*************
    7
    0
    
  4. 对列表增加一个名为myAverage的槽,以计算所有数字的平均值。

    List myAverage := method(
        if(self isEmpty) then( return 0 )
        sum := 0
        self foreach(e,
            if(e type != "Number") then(
                Exception raise("List member is not a number") 
            )
            sum = sum + e
        )
        avg := sum / self size
    )
    	
    list() myAverage println
    list(3,4,5,1.2) myAverage println
    
  5. 对二维矩阵写一个原型。该原型dim的方法可为一个包含y个列表的列表分配内存,其中每个列表有x个元素,set(x,y) 方法可以设置类别中的值,get(x,y)方法可返回列表中的值。

    TwoDArray := Object clone
    TwoDArray dim := method(x,y,
        self data := list()
        for(i,0,x-1,
            innerList := list()
            for(j,0,y-1,
                innerList append(nil)
            )
            data append(innerList)
        )
    )
    	
    TwoDArray set := method(x,y,e,
        outterList := self data
        if(x > outterList size, return)
        innerList := outterList at(x)
        if(y > innerList size, return)
        innerList atPut(y,e)
    )
    	
    TwoDArray get := method(x,y,
        outterList := self data
        if(x > outterList size, return nil)
        innerList := outterList at(x)
        if(y > innerList size, return nil)
        innerList at(y)
    )
    	
    	
    arr2 := TwoDArray clone
    arr2 dim(3,4)
    arr2 set(1,2,3)
    arr2 set(1,10,3)
    arr2 get(1,2) println
    arr2 get(1,10) println
    

    dim(x,y)分配了包含x个列表的列表,每个子列表有y个元素,与题目有点不同,但觉得这样更好理解。 代码没有对数组下标越界抛出异常,抛出异常应该更好。

  6. 写一个转置方法,是原列表上的matrix get(x,y)与转置后的列表(new_matrix get(y,x))相等。

    TwoDArray transpose := method(
        outterList := self data
        y := outterList size
        innerList := outterList at(0)
        x := innerList size
        ret := TwoDArray clone
        ret dim(x, y)
        for(i,0,x-1,
            for(j,0,y-1,
                ret set(i, j, self get(j, i))
            )
        )
        return ret
    )
    	
    	
    arr2 := TwoDArray clone
    arr2 dim(3,4)
    arr2 set(1,2,3)
    arr2 set(1,10,3)
    arr2 get(1,2) println
    arr2 get(1,10) println
    "-----------" println
    arr3 := arr2 transpose
    arr3 get(2,1) println
    arr3 get(10,1) println
    
  7. 将文件写入矩阵,并从文件读取矩阵

    TwoDArray writeMatrix := method(filePath,
        f := File with(filePath)
        f remove
        f openForUpdating
        outterList := self data
        x := outterList size
        y := outterList at(0) size
        f write((x .. "," .. y .. "\n"))
        outterList foreach(e,
            line := ""
            e foreach(e2,
                line = line .. e2 .. ","
            )
            f write(line exSlice(0,-1),"\n")
        )
        f close
    )
    	
    	
    TwoDArray readMatrix := method(filePath,
        f := File with(filePath)
        f openForReading
        line := f readLine
        d := line split(",")
        x := d at(0) asNumber
        y := d at(1) asNumber
        ret := TwoDArray clone
        ret dim(x,y)
        writeln("x=",x,", y=",y)
        i := 0
        j := 0
        f readLines foreach(line,
            list := line split(",")
            j = 0
            list foreach(e,
                writeln(i,"x",j,"=",e)
                if(e != "nil",ret set(i,j,e))
                j = j + 1
            )
            i = i +1
        )
        f close
        return ret
    )
    	
    	
    TwoDArray writeMatrix2 := method(filePath,
        f := File with(filePath)
        f remove
        f openForUpdating
        f write(self serialized())
        f close
    )
    	
    TwoDArray readMatrix2 := method(filePath,
        ret := doFile(filePath)
        return ret
    )
    	
    	
    arr2 := TwoDArray clone
    arr2 dim(3,4)
    arr2 set(1,2,3)
    arr2 set(1,10,3)
    arr2 get(1,2) println
    arr2 get(1,10) println
    "-----------" println
    arr3 := arr2 transpose
    arr3 get(2,1) println
    arr3 get(10,1) println
    	
    arr3 writeMatrix("./test.dt")
    	
    arr4 := TwoDArray readMatrix("./test.dt")
    	
    arr4 println
    arr4 get(2,1) println
    arr4 get(10,1) println
    	
    arr3 writeMatrix2("./test2.dt")
    	
    arr5 := TwoDArray readMatrix2("./test2.dt")
    	
    arr5 println
    arr5 get(2,1) println
    arr5 get(10,1) println
    
  8. 写一个程序,提供10次尝试机会,猜一个1~100之间的随机数。如果

    GuessNumGame := Object clone
    GuessNumGame init := method(
        self secretNum := Random value(1,101) floor
        self guessTimes := 0
        self lowBoundry := 0
        self highBoundry := 100
        secretNum println
    )
    	
    GuessNumGame guess := method(x,
        guessTimes println
        if(guessTimes > 10) then(
            "You had guess over 10 times! Game over!" println
            return
        )
        if(x < secretNum) then(
            if(x > lowBoundry,lowBoundry = x)
            writeln("You guess lowwer. You can guess between ",lowBoundry," to ",highBoundry)
        ) elseif(x == self secretNum) then(
            writeln("Congratulations! You got the right number!")
        ) else(
            if(x < highBoundry, highBoundry = x)
            writeln("You guess higher. You can guess between ",lowBoundry," to ",highBoundry)
        )
        guessTimes = guessTimes + 1
    )
    	
    game := GuessNumGame clone
    game guess(10)
    game guess(50)
    

领域特定语言

几乎每一个研究过Io语言的人,都会对它在DSL方面的强大赞不绝口。下面实现一种有趣的电话号码语法的API。
比如:

{
    "Bob smith":"5195551212",
    "Mary Walsh":"4162223434"
}

解决这一个问题的办法:

OperatorTable addAssignOperator(":","atPutNumber")
curlyBrackets := method(
    r := Map clone
    call message arguments foreach(arg,
        r doMessage(arg)
    )
    r
)

Map atPutNumber := method(
    self atPut(
        call evalArgAt(0) asMutable removePrefix("\"") removeSuffix("\""),
        call evalArgAt(1)
    )
)

s := File with("phonebook.txt") openForReading contents
phoneNumbers := doString(s)  //doString把电话号码簿求值为Io代码
phoneNumbers keys println
phoneNumbers values println

Io的method_messing

就像Ruby的method_missing那样,你也可以用Io的forward消息做到同样的事,但是这样做的风险会高一些。Io没有类,所以改变forward也将改变从Object获得的基本行为方式。
XML是对数据进行结构化的绝妙方式,但是却有着令人作呕的语法。为了摆脱这语法,你可以写一个程序,用Io代码来表示XML数据。 假如你想把下面的数据:

<body>
<p>
This is a simple paragraph.
</p>
</body>

表示成:

body(
    p("This is a simple paragraph.")
)

我们把这种新语言称作LispML。我们将用Io的forward处理这门语言,就像处理不存在的方法一样(missing_method)。

Builder := Object clone
Builder forward := method(
    writeln("<",call message name,">")
        call message arguments foreach(arg,
            content := self doMessage(arg)
            if(content type == "Sequence", writeln(content))
        )
    writeln("</",call message name,">")
)

Builder ul(
    li("IO"),
    li("Lua"),
    li("Javascript")
)

并发

Io有非常出色的并发库,其主要组成部分包括协程、actor和future。

1.协程

协程是并发的基础。它提供了进程自动挂起和恢复执行的机制。你可以把协程想象成有多个入口和出口的函数。每次yield都会自动挂起当前进程,并把控制转到另一个进程中。 通过在消息前加上@或@@,你可以异步触发消息,前者将返回future,后者会返回nil,并在其自身线程中触发消息。

vizzini := Object clone
vizzini talk := method(
    "Fezzik, are there rooks ahead?" println
    yield
    "No more rhymes now, I mean it." println
    yield
)

fezzik := Object clone
fezzik rhyme := method(
    yield
    "If there are, we'll all be dead." println
    yield
    "Anybody want a peanut?" println
)

vizzini @@talk
fezzik @@rhyme

Coroutine currentCoroutine pause

协程是组成更高级抽象概念(如actor)的基本元素。你可以把actor想象成通用的并发原语,它可以发送消息、处理消息以及创建其它actor。actor接收到的消息是并发的。在Io中,actor把新到达的消息放到队列上,并用协程处理队列中的各个消息。

2.Actor

和线程相比,actor有巨大的理论优势。一个actor可以改变其自身状态,并且通过严格控制的队列接触其它actor。而多个线程可以不受限制地改变状态。线程容易接受到被称为竞争条件的并发影响。在这种问题中,如果两个线程同时存取资源,可能导致不可预测的后果。
Io的动人之处就在于此,发送异步消息给任何对象就是actor,就这么简单。举一个例子:

slower := Object clone
faster := Object clone

slower start := method(
    wait(2)
    writeln("slowly")
)

faster start := method(
    wait(1)
    writeln("quickly")
)

slower start
faster start
"======================" println
slower @@start
faster @@start
Coroutine currentCoroutine pause

3.future

在Io中,future并不是代理实现。future会阻塞到可获得结果为止。future的值一开始是个future对象,但等到结果产生之后,所有future值的实例都会指向结果对象。

futureResult := URL with("http://google.com/") @fetch
writeln("doing other thing ...")
wait(2)
writeln("fetched," futureResult size," bytes")

在windows下运行上面代码出现Exception: Object does not respond to ‘URL’异常,google了一下,未能解决,望高手指点。

第三天自习

  1. 改进本节生成的XML程序,增加空格以显示缩进结构。

    Builder := Object clone
    Builder indentSize := 4
    Builder i := 0
    Builder forward := method(
        (i * indentSize) repeat(write(" "))
        writeln("<",call message name,">")
    	
        i = i + 1
        call message arguments foreach(arg,
            content := self doMessage(arg)
            if(content type == "Sequence", 
                (i * indentSize) repeat(write(" "))
                writeln(content)
            )
        )
        i = i -1
    	
        (i * indentSize) repeat(write(" "))
        writeln("</",call message name,">")
    )
    	
    Builder ul(
        li(p("IO")),
        li("Lua"),
        li("Javascript")
    )
    
  2. 创建一种使用括号的列表语法

    squareBrackets := method(		
      if(call message arguments asString containsSeq("squareBrackets") not,return call message arguments) 		//如果不含子数组就直接返回参数列表,参数列表本来就是一个list
      list := List clone
      call message arguments foreach(arg,
       aArg := if(arg asString beginsWithSeq("squareBrackets"),doMessage(arg),arg)
       list append(aArg)// 最后一行为返回值
      )
      list
    )
    	
    [] println
    [1,"kk"] println
    [1,["kk",10.5]] println
    
  3. 改进本节生成xml程序,使其可以处理属性:如果第一个参数时映射(用大括号语法),则为xml添加属性。例如:
    book({"author":"Tate"}...) 将打印出 <book author="Tate">

    OperatorTable addAssignOperator(":","addAttribute")
    	
    Builder := Object clone
    	
    Builder addAttribute := method(
        call message arguments println
        write(call evalArgAt(0))
        write("=\"",call evalArgAt(1),"\"")
    )
    	
    Builder curlyBrackets := method(
        call message arguments foreach(arg,
            self doMessage(arg)
        )
    )
    	
    	
    	
    Builder indentSize := 4
    Builder i := 0
    Builder forward := method(
        (i * indentSize) repeat(write(" "))
        write("<",call message name)
    	
        i = i + 1
    		
        args :=call message arguments 
        arg1 := args at(0)
        if( arg1 asString beginsWithSeq("curlyBrackets"),
            //arg1 println
            self doMessage(arg1)
            args remove(arg1)
        )
        writeln(">")
        args foreach(arg,
            content := self doMessage(arg)
            if(content type == "Sequence", 
                (i * indentSize) repeat(write(" "))
                writeln(content)
            )
        )
        i = i -1
    	
        (i * indentSize) repeat(write(" "))
        writeln("</",call message name,">")
    )
    			
    	
    Builder ul(
        {"class" : "foo","id" : "language"},
        li("Io")
    )
    

上面代码会出现异常,不知道如何解决。

    <ul
      Exception: Sequence does not respond to ':'
      ---------
      Sequence :                           builder.io 50
      Builder curlyBrackets                builder.io 50
      Builder ul                           builder.io 49
      CLI doFile                           Z_CLI.io 140
      CLI run